The exam is two multiple-part essay questions of about one page each and one essay question of about one-half page. Short definitions for selected terms or phrases address material not covered in the essay questions.

What are the advantages and disadvantages in using a general circulation model to simulate climate change?

Explain what is meant by an equilibrium state GCM simulation and a time-dependent (transient) GCM simulation.

Global climate models indicate that the direct effect of increasing the solar constant by 2% is a surface warming of 1.3° C. But the total warming is 4° C. Explain how this could happen and describe the physical mechanisms that could be involved.

Using global temperature change, why are there differences in the climate response simulated by various GCMs assuming a doubling of carbon dioxide? Why are the simulations of temperature more consistent from model to model than the simulations of precipitation?

Compare the climatic forcing of water vapor feedback, ice-albedo feedback, cloud feedback, and a doubling of carbon dioxide.

How is system albedo explained by changes in each of the three basic albedo components for the earth-atmosphere system?

What are the alterations in the radiation balance related to changes in atmospheric aerosols that account for either warming or cooling at the Earth’s surface?

As agents of climate change, compare anthropogenic sulfur aerosols, carbon dioxide, and methane.

Describe the direct and indirect radiative influences of sulfur aerosols on the climate system.

Describe the characteristics of the climatic influence of volcanic eruptions that are distinctive to volcanoes.

Describe the role of the oceans in explaining climate change on different time scales.

Compare and/or contrast the contemporary circulation of the surface currents of the oceans and the deep ocean circulation. What is the relative climatic role of each circulation?

What is the influence of each contributor to the enhanced greenhouse effect expressed as radiative forcing relative to carbon dioxide?

Climate sensitivity

Halocarbons

Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)

Permanent thermocline

Western boundary currents

Eastern boundary currents

Oceanic buffering and CO₂

Climate model parameterization

Climate model boundary conditions

EBM

RCM

SDM

CLIMAP

Optical depth

Global warming potential

Tambora

Dust Veil Index

Radiative forcing

Ocean upwelling

Thermohaline circulation